EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
Research Article
Jul 26, 2022 110 47

Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators

Chukwuemeka Amaefule 1 * ,
Ijeoma Emele Kalu 1,
Sylvester Udeorah 1,
Igwe Justice Ibeabuchi 2,
Sunday Oluwafiropo Adeola 2,
Lawrence Oghenemaro Ebelebe 3
1 Department of Economics, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, NIGERIA2 Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, NIGERIA3 International Trade and Development, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, NIGERIA* Corresponding Author
European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 2022, 6(4), em0199, https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
Full Text (PDF)

ABSTRACT

This paper examined the impact of changing climate patterns (represented by square and cubic CO2 emissions) on selected development drivers (proxy by gross domestic product [GDP] per capita [GDPC] and official development assistance [ODA]). Environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) provided the theoretical backdrop of this study, referred to as the core second-generation EKC (SGEKC) hypothesis. SGEKC was modified to obtain the transposed SGEKC. The transposed SGEKC was conceptualized based on the one-way criticism of the EKC. An unbalanced PMG (ARDL) method was utilized to investigate the impact of the changing climate patterns on GDPPC–(to capture EKC hypothesis) and ODA–(to capture pollution haven hypothesis) in the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ). This study, therefore, leveraged data from world development indicators between 1970 and 2019. The result showed that the one-way impact of CO2 emissions on GDPC has a long-run N-shaped. The outcome of the GDPC model (in the transposed SGEKC hypothesis) is consistent with the core SGEKC hypothesis. On the other hand, the impact of CO2 emissions on the ODA showed an inverted N-shaped in the long run. The inverted N-shaped relationship does not support pollution-haven hypothesis in the long-run. The results, therefore, imply that the changing climate patterns have a more disruptive impact on income per capita and less on ODA. In the short-run, the result showed the existence of an inverted-N and N-shapes for GDPC (SGEKC does not hold) and ODA (presence of pollution haven) respectively. In conclusion, changing climate patterns present a long-run threat to the economy of WAMZ which in turn could disrupt economic agents’ interactions, de-optimize economic aggregates and economic equilibrium, as well as negatively affect the attainment of a long-run regional development objectives. This study recommends that WAMZ’s government(s) should fast-track the implementation of robust carbon pricing mechanism and abatement policy that would enable climate mitigation policy, improve the regions nationally determined contributions (NDCs) targets, and insulate the economies from policy uncertainty associated with climate change.

KEYWORDS

climate change development environmental Kuznets curve climate patterns West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) transposed SGEKC UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres pollution haven hypothesis

CITATION (APA)

Amaefule, C., Kalu, I. E., Udeorah, S., Ibeabuchi, I. J., Adeola, S. O., & Ebelebe, L. O. (2022). Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6(4), em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
Harvard
Amaefule, C., Kalu, I. E., Udeorah, S., Ibeabuchi, I. J., Adeola, S. O., and Ebelebe, L. O. (2022). Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6(4), em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
Vancouver
Amaefule C, Kalu IE, Udeorah S, Ibeabuchi IJ, Adeola SO, Ebelebe LO. Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators. EUR J SUSTAIN DEV RES. 2022;6(4):em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
AMA
Amaefule C, Kalu IE, Udeorah S, Ibeabuchi IJ, Adeola SO, Ebelebe LO. Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators. EUR J SUSTAIN DEV RES. 2022;6(4), em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
Chicago
Amaefule, Chukwuemeka, Ijeoma Emele Kalu, Sylvester Udeorah, Igwe Justice Ibeabuchi, Sunday Oluwafiropo Adeola, and Lawrence Oghenemaro Ebelebe. "Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators". European Journal of Sustainable Development Research 2022 6 no. 4 (2022): em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274
MLA
Amaefule, Chukwuemeka et al. "Transposed Second-Generation Environmental Kuznets Curve, Changing Climate Patterns, and Selected Development Indicators". European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, vol. 6, no. 4, 2022, em0199. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12274

REFERENCES

  1. Action against Hunger. (2020a). Global performance report 2020. Available at: www.actionagainsthunger.org (Accessed: 1 December 2021).
  2. Action against Hunger. (2020b). International annual report 2020. Available at: www.actionagainsthunger.org (Accessed: 1 December 2021).
  3. Adger, W. (2006). Vulnerability. Global Environment Change, 16(3), 268-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.006
  4. Akpan, U. F. and Chuku, A. (2011). Economic growth and environmental degradation in Nigeria: Beyond the EKC. MPRA, 31241.
  5. Amaefule, C. and Ebelebe, L. O. (2022). Climate change scare and FDI migration. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6(3), em0191. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12098
  6. Amaefule, C., Kalu, I. E., Udeorah, S. and Ebelebe, L. O. (2022). Fossil fuel consumption, CO2 emissions, and growth in high-income countries and low-income countries. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6(3), em0190. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12084
  7. Ang, J. B. (2007). CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and output in France. Energy Policy, 35(10), 4772-4778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2007.03.032
  8. Apergis, N. and Payne, J. E. (2009). CO2 emissions, energy usage, and output in Central America. Energy Policy, 37(8), 3282-3286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.03.048
  9. Aragie, E. A. (2013). Climate change, growth, and poverty in Ethiopia. Climate change and African political stability, Robert S. Strauss Centre for international security and law. University of Texas at Austin, Working Paper, no. 3
  10. Arent, D. J. (ed). (2014). Climate change: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability; Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  11. Arouri, M. E. H., Youssef, A. B., M’henni, H. and Rault, C. (2012). Energy consumption, economic growth, and CO2 emissions in Middle East and North African countries. IZA DP, No 6412. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2028212
  12. Arrow K. and Piemental, D. (1995). Economic growth, carrying capacity, and the environment. Ecological Economics, 15(2), 91-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(95)00059-3
  13. Arrow, K., Bolin, B., Costanza, R., Dasgupta, P., et al. (1996). Economic growth, carry capacity, and the environment. Environment and Development Economics(slant), 1(1), 104-110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X00000413
  14. Barbier, E. B. and Hochard, J. P. (2018). Poverty, rural population distribution and climate change. Environment and Development Economics, 23(3). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X17000353
  15. Baulch, B. (ed). (2011). Why poverty persists: Poverty dynamics in Asia and Africa. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857930255
  16. Beasley, D. (2021a). The 2021 global report on food crisis. UN World Food Programme.
  17. Beasley, D. (2021b). UN chief warns of risk of famine for millions around the world. AFP.
  18. Bucher, G. (2021). Already up 20 per cent, acute hunger driven by conflict, instability risk increasing further due climate change. Oxfam. Available at: https://press.un.org/en/2021/sc14463.doc.htm (Accessed: 1 December 2021).
  19. Bucher, G. (2021). UN chief warns of risk of famine for millions around the world. AFP.
  20. Burrrows, K. and Kinney, P. L. (2016). Exploring the climate change, migration, and conflict nexus. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13040443
  21. Caron, J. and Fally, T. (2018). Per capita income, consumption patterns, and CO2 emissions. CEPR Discussion Paper, No. DP13092. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24923
  22. Carvajal-Velez, L. (2007). Impacts of climate change on human development: In fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world. Human development report office occasional paper.
  23. Cohen, M. J. and Reeves, D. (1995). Causes of hunger. International Food Policy Research Institute 2020 Brief 19, May 1995.
  24. Cole, M., Rayner, A. J. and Bates, J. M. (1997). The environmental Kuznets curve: An empirical analysis. Environment and Development Economics, 2(4), 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X97000211
  25. Coondoo, D. and Dinda, S. (2002) Causality between income and emission: A country group specific econometric analysis. Ecological Economics, 40(3), 351-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(01)00280-4
  26. Copeland, B. R. and Taylor, M. S. (2004). Trade, growth, and the environment. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(1), 7-71. https://doi.org/10.1257/.42.1.7
  27. D’Souza, A. and Jollife, D. (2012). Rising food prices and coping strategies: Household-level evidence from Afghanistan. Journal of Development Studies, 48(2), 282-299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2011.635422
  28. D’Souza, A. and Jollife, D. (2013). Conflict, food price shocks, and food insecurity: The experience of Afghan households. Food Policy, 42, 32-47. https://doi.org/10.101016/j.ffodpol.2013.06.007
  29. Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Wang, H. and Wheeler, D. (2002). Confronting the environmental Kuznets curve. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(1), 147-168. https://doi.org/10.1257/0895330027157
  30. De Silva, M. M. G. T. and Kawasaki, A. (2018). Socioeconomic vulnerability to disaster risk: A case study of flood and drought impact in a rural Sri Lankan community. Ecological Economics, 152, 131-140 https://doi.org/10.10116/j.ecolecon.2018.05.010
  31. Del Ninno, C., Dorosh, P. A. and Islam, N. (2003). Public policy, markets and household coping strategies in Bangladesh: Avoiding a food security following the 1998 floods. World Development, 31(7), 1221-1238, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(03)00071-8
  32. Del Silva, M. M. G. T. and Kawasaki, A. (2018). Socioeconomic vulnerability to disaster risk: A case study of flood and drought impact in a rural Sri Lankan community. Ecological Economics, 152(C), 131-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.05.010
  33. Devereux, S. (2007). The impact of droughts and floods on food security and policy options to alleviate negative effects. Agricultural Economics, 37(1), 47-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2007.00234.x
  34. Dorward, A. & Kydd, J. (2004). The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenges. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 42 (3), 343-361. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X04000229
  35. Eckstein, D., Kunzel, V. and Schafer, L. (2021). Global climate risk index 2021. Bonn: German watch e.V.
  36. Elbers, C., Gunning, J. W. and Kinsey, B. (2007). Growth and risk: Methodology and micro evidence. World Bank Economic Review, 21(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhl008
  37. Gill, A. R., Viswanathan, K. K. and Hassan, S. (2018). A test of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for carbon emission and potential of renewable energy to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) in Malaysia. Environmental Development and Sustainability, 20, 1103-1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-9929-5
  38. Grossman, G. M. and Krueger, A. B. (1991). Environmental impacts of a North America free trade agreement. NBER working papers 3914. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3914
  39. Guterres, A. (2020). Making peace with nature is the defining task of the 21st century. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/un-secretary-general-speaks-state-planet (Accessed: 1 December 2021).
  40. Guterres, A. (2021a). UN chief warns of risk of famine for millions around the world. AFP. https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2082131/un-chief-warns-of-risk-of-famine-for-millions-around-the-world (Accessed: 1 December 2021).
  41. Guterres, A. (2021b). 2021 is “make or break year” for climate action. World Meteorological Organization.
  42. Hallegatte, S. Bangalore, M., Bonzanigo, L., Fay, M., Narloch, U., Rozenberg, J. and Vogt-Schilb, A. (2014). Climate change and poverty: An analytical framework. Policy Research WP, No 7126. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-7126
  43. Hallegatte, S. Bangalore, M., Bonzanigo, L., Fay, M., Narloch, U., Rozenberg, J. and Vogt-Schilb, A. (2016). Shock waves: Managing the impacts of climate change, and development series. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0673-5
  44. Hallegatte, S., Fay, M. and Barbier, E. B. (2018). Poverty and climate change. Environment and Development Economics, 23(3), 217-233. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770x18000141
  45. Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A. and Bangalore, M. and Rozenberg, J. (2017). Unbreakable: Building the resilience of the poor in the face of natural disasters. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1003-9
  46. Harbaugh, W., Levinson, A. and Wilson, D. (1998). Re-examining the empirical evidence of an environmental Kuznets curve. Mimeo, University of Oregon, Oregon.
  47. Hettiarachchi, S., Wasko, C. and Sharma, A. (2018). Increase in flood risk resulting from climate change in a developed urban watershed-the role of storm temporal patterns. Hydrology and Earth System Science, 22, 2041-2056, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2041-2018
  48. Hilton, F. G. H and Levinson, A. (1998). Factoring the environmental Kuznets curve: Evidence from automotive lead emissions. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 35, 126-141. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeem.1998.1023
  49. Human Development Report. (2019). http://hdr.undp.org
  50. Ibeabuchi, I. J., Amaefule, C. and Shoaga, A. (2022). Determinants of greenhouse gas emissions. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 6(4), em0194. https://doi.org/10.21601/ejosdr/12176
  51. IPCC. (1991). Second assessment report (AR2) working group II (1991-1995).
  52. IPCC. (2015). Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change; working group III contribution to the IPCC fifth assessment report. Cambridge University Press.
  53. IPCC. (2022). Climate change 2022 impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Summary for policymakers WGII sixth assessment report.
  54. Islam, S. N. and Winkel, J. (2017). Climate change and social inequality. United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs.
  55. Ismail, M. A. and Mawar, M. M. (2012). Energy consumption, emissions, and economic growth in an oil producing country. MPRA paper 37535, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  56. Jaunky, V. C. (2010). The CO2 emissions-income nexus: Evidence from rich countries. Energy Policy, 39(3), 1128-1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.050
  57. Johansen, S. (1995). Likehood-based inferences in cointegrated vector autoregressive models. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198774508.003.0002
  58. Kasperowicz, R. (2015). Economic growth and CO2 emissions: The ECM analysis. Journal of International Studies, 8(3), 91-98.
  59. Khoday, K. and Ali, W. (2018). Climate change and the rise of poverty. UNDP.
  60. Koop, T. and Tole, L. (1999). Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for deforestation? Journal of Development Economics, 58, 231-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(98)00110-2
  61. Krishna, A. (2006). Pathways out of and into poverty in 36 villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. World Development Special Issue, 34(2), 271-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.08.003
  62. Kundzewicz, W. Z., Kanae, S., Seneviratne, S. S., Handmer, J., et al. (2013). Flood risk and climate change: Global and regional perspectives. Hydrological Science Journal, 59(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.857411
  63. Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequalities. The American Economic Review, 45, 1-28.
  64. Larson, D. F., Dinar, A. and Blankespoor, B. (2012). Aligning climate change mitigation and agricultural policies in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Policy Research Working Paper, No. 6080. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6080
  65. Leichenko, R. and Silva, J. A. (2014). Climate change and poverty: Vulnerability, impacts, and alleviation strategies. WIREs Climate Change, 5(4), 539-556. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.287
  66. Lipford, J. W and Yandle, B. (2010). Environmental Kuznets curve, carbon emissions and public choice, Environment and Development Economics, 15(4), 438-471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X10000124
  67. List, J. A. and Gallet, C. A. (1999). The environmental Kuznets curve: Does one size fits all? Ecological Economics, 31, 409-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00064-6
  68. Lopez, R. (1994). The environmental as a factor of production: The effects of economic growth and trade liberalization. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 27(2), 163-184. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeem.1994.1032
  69. Martinez-Alier, J. (1995). The environment as a luxury good or too poor to be green? Ecological Economics, 13(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(94)00062-Z
  70. McConnel, K. (1997). Income and the demand for environment quality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  71. Milly, P. C. D., Wetherald, R. T., Dunne, K. A. and Delworth, T. L. (2002). Increasing risk of great floods in a changing climate. Nature, 415(6871), 514-517. https://doi.org/10.1038/415514a
  72. Moomaw, W. R. and Unruh, G. C. (1997). Are environmental Kuznets curve misleading us? Environment and Development Economics, 11, 451-464. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X97000247
  73. Moser, C. (ed.) (2008). Reducing global poverty: The case for asset accumulation. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press.
  74. Mueller, V. and Quisumbing, A. (2011). How resilient are labour markets to natural disasters? The case of the 1998 Bangladesh flood. Journal of Development Studies, 47(12), 1954-1971. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2011.579113
  75. Narayan, P. K. and Narayan, S. (2010). Carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth: Panel data evidence from developing countries. Energy Policy, 38(1), 661-666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.09.005
  76. Nordhaus, W. D. (1991). To slow or not to slow: The economics of the greenhouse effect. Economic Journal, 100(444), 920-937. https://doi.org/10.2307/2233864
  77. Nordhaus, W. D. (2006). Geography and macroeconomics: New data and new findings. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(10), 3510. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0509842103
  78. Olatayo, T., Andrew, M. and Eperiware, M. (2019). Dynamics of economic growth and environmental degradation in Nigeria using vector autoregressive model. Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.24203/ajas.v7i2.5606
  79. Olsson, L., Opondo, M., Tschakert, P., Agrawal, A., Eriksen, S., Ma, S., Perch, L. and Zakieldeen, S. (2014). Livelihood and poverty in climate change 2014 impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  80. Omisakin, O. A. (2009). Economic growth and environmental quality in Nigeria: Does environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis hold? Environmental Research Journal, 13(1), 14-18.
  81. Omojolabi, J. A. (2010). Environmental quality and economic growth in some selected West African countries: A panel data assessment of the environmental Kuznets curve. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12(8), 35-48.
  82. Oriavwote, V. E. and Oyovwi, D. O. (2019). Economic implications of environmental degradation in Nigeria: Is the environmental Kuznets curve relevant to Nigeria? International Journal of Development and Economic Sustainability, 7(2), 18-27.
  83. Pacetti, T., Caporali, E. and Rulli, M. C. (2017). Floods and food security: A method to estimate the effect of inundation on crop availability. Advances in Water Resources, 100, 494-504. https://doi.org/j.advwatres.2017.06.019
  84. Panayotou, T. (1993). Empirical tests and policy analysis of environmental degradation at different stages of economic development. ILO Working Papers 992927783402676.
  85. Panayotou, T. (2000). Demystifying the environmental Kuznets curve: Turning a black box into a policy tool. Environment and Development Economics, 2, 465-484. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X97000259
  86. Ravallion, M., Heil, M. and Jalan, J. (2000). Carbon emissions and income inequality. Oxford Economic Papers, 52(4), 651-669. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/52.4.651
  87. Roberts, J. T. and Grimes, P. E. (1997). Carbon intensity and economic development 1962-91: A brief exploration of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Development, 25(2), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(96)00104-0
  88. Rothman, D. S. (1998). Environmental Kuznets curves-real progress or passing the buck? A case for consumption-based approaches. Ecological Economics, 25(2), 177-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(97)00179-1
  89. Saina, C. K., Murgor, D. K. and Murgor, F. A. C. (2013). Climate change and food security. Environmental Change and Sustainability.
  90. Sari, R. and Soytas, U. (2009). Energy consumption and GDP: Causality relationship in G-7 countries and emerging markets. Energy Economics, 25(1), 33-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-9883(02)00009-9
  91. Schreider, S. Y., Smith, D. I. and Jakeman, A. J. (2000). Climate change impacts on urban flooding. Climatic Change, 47(1-2), 91-115. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005621523177
  92. Selden, T. and Song, D. (1994). Environmental quality and development: Is there a Kuznets curve for air pollution emissions? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 2(2), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeem.1994.1031
  93. Shafik, N. and Bandyopadhyay, S. (1992). Economic growth and environmental quality: Time series and cross-country evidence. Policy Research Working Paper Series 904.
  94. Skoufias, E. (ed) (2012). The poverty and welfare impact of climate change quantifying the effects, identifying the adaptation strategies. World Bank, no 9384. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9611-7
  95. Smit, B. and Wandel, J. (2006). Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environment Change, 16(3), 282-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008
  96. Smith, J., Olosky, L. and Fernandez, J. G. (2021). The climate-gender-conflict nexus: Amplifying women’s contribution at the grassroots. GIWPS.
  97. Stern, N. (2004). The rise and fall of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Development, 12(8), 1419-1439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.03.004
  98. Stern, N. (2006). What is the economics of climate change? World Economics, 72(2), 1-10.
  99. Stern, N. (2008). The economics of climate change. American Economic Review, 98(2), 1-37.https://doi:10.1257/aer.98.2.1
  100. Taguchi, H. (2012). The environmental Kuznets curve in Asia: The case of sulphur and carbon emissions. Asia-Pacific Development Journal, 19(2), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.18356/9eb232aa-en
  101. Thongrawd, C. and Kerdpitak, C. (2020). Energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and economic growth in ASEAN. Journal of Security and Sustainability Issues. https://doi.org/10.9770/jssi.2020.9.J(2)
  102. Tol, R. S. J. (2002). Estimates of the damage costs of climate change-Benchmark estimates. Environmental and Resource Economics, 21(1), 47-73. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014500930521
  103. Tol, R. S. J. (2009). The economic effects of climate change. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23(2), 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.23.2.29
  104. Tong, T., Ortiz, J., Xu, C. and Li, F. (2020). Economic growth, energy consumption, and carbon dioxide emissions in the E7 countries: A bootstrap ARDL bound test. Energy, Sustainability, and Society, 10(20), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-020-00253-6
  105. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2016). The world economic and social survey, 21-46. https://doi.org/10.18356/acf57efb-en
  106. Vermeulen, S. J., Campbell, B. M. and Igram, J. S. I. (2012). Climate change and food system. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 195-222. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020411-130608
  107. Villanueva, I. A. (2012). Introducing institutional variables in the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC): A Latin American study. Annals-Economy Series, Constantin Brancusi University, Faculty of Economics, 1, 71-81.
  108. Webber, D. J. and Allen, D. O. (2004). Environmental Kuznets curves: Mess or meaning? The International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/13504501003787638
  109. World Bank. (2020). Economics of adaptation to climate change: Synthesis report. IBRD/The World Bank.

LICENSE

Creative Commons License
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.